Refrance....R.Guptas general knowledge
A DETAILED HISTORYOF JAMMU &KASHMIR
Kashmir is perhaps, to possess an authentic account of its history from the very
earliest period. This past account of the valley, its culture and traditions, rise and
fall of various Kingdoms, victory and defeats of the people have been noted
carefully, yet critically by the sons of its soil. True it is, that the Kashmiriat literature
is very rich in information about Kashmir.
The beauty and the salubrious climate of the valley was known even from the
ancient times. The mythological traditions supported fully by the research of
geologists confirm that the valley originally was a huge lake called "Satisar", (the
land of goddess Sati, consort of Lord Shiva) and its waters were blocked near
Baramulla (ancient Varahmulla). In the words of Sir Francis Young Husband,
"The huge lake must have been twice the length and three times the width of the
lake of Geneva, completely encircled by snowy mountains as high, and higher
than Mount Blank, while in the immediately following glacial period, mighty
glaciers came wending down to the Sindh, Lidder, and other valleys even to the
edge of water."
Kashmir's greatest historian Kalhan writes about his native land: "It is a country
where the sun shines mildly, being the place created by Rishi Kashyap, for his
glory- big and lofty houses, learning, Saffron, icy cool water and grapes rare in
Heaven are plentiful here - Kailash is the best place in the three worlds (Tri-lok),
Himalayas the best place in Kailash, and Kashmir the best place in Himalayas".
Our immortal Sanskrit poet Kalidas writes about the valley :
"The place is more beautiful than the heaven and is the benefactor of supreme bliss
and happiness. It seems to me that I am taking a bath in the lake of nectar here."
Sir Walter Lawrence writes "The valley is an emerald set in pearls; a land of lakes,
clear streams, green turf, magnificient trees and mighty mountains where the air is
cool, and the water sweet, where men are strong, and women vie with the soil in
fruitfulness. "He further writes that the valley contains everything which should
make life enjoyable. There is sport varied and excellent, there is scenery for the
artist and the layman, mountain for the mountaineer, flower for the Botanist, a vast
field for the Geologist and magnificient ruins for the archaeologist.
PRE-HISTORIC TIMES
According to the oldest extant book on Kashmir, "Nilmat Puran ", in the Satisar
lived a demon called Jalod Bowa, who tortured and devoured the people, who
lived near mountain slopes. Hearing the suffering of the people, a great saint of
our country, Kashyap by name, came to the rescue of the people here. After
performing penance for a long time, the saint was blessed, and he was able to cut
the mountain near Varahmulla, which blocked the water of the lake from flowing
into the plains below. The lake was drained, the land appeared, and the demon was
killed. The saint encouraged people from India to settle in the valley. The people
named the valley as Kashyap-Mar and Kashyap-Pura. The name Kashmir also
implies land desicated from water: "ka" (the water) and shimeera (to desicate).
The ancient Greeks called it "Kasperia" and the Chinese pilgrim Hien-Tsang who
visited the valley around 631 A. D. called it KaShi-Mi-Lo ". In modern times the
people of Kashmir have shortened it into "Kasheer" in their tongue.
Regarding pre-historic times, Dr. Sunil Chandra Ray writes: "Pre-historic
explorations have discovered the occurence of quaternary Glacial cycles in the
valley. The chief Geological formation of the ice-age here are the lacustrine deposits
called the "Karewas", which overlay the terminal moraines of the first Glaciation
and are comprised of two groups, Lower and Upper, differentiated by the moraines
of the second Glaciation. The fossil remains of Elphas-hysudrious obtained in the
lower 'Karewas' point to lower "Pleistocene age", writes De Teera. The neolithic
culture is indicated by the discovery of ground and polished stone axes, hoes,
pestle, and bone implements at the well-known menhir-site of Burzahom, ten miles
east of, Srinagar. Burazahoma is famous as one of the only two megalithic sites in
the extreme north-west of Indian sub-continent. We do not exactly know the Cultural
horizon of the Burazahoma megalithic, nor the Purpose for which they were erected,
but the indications are, they were put in places towards the end of the neolithic
period at that site, between 400 to 300 B. C."
In 1960, Archaeological Department of the Govt. of India began systematic
excavation at this site. Near about the siltbed, pits have been discovered in sections,
indicating a settlement of early Pit dwellers whose date has tentatively been fixed
at 3000 B.C. This is Perhaps the only known find of such a settlement in India. It
is possible that more valuable data would be found, when extensive surface diggings
are completed.
HINDU PERIOD
Kalhan has started the history of Kashmir just before the great Mahabharat war,
and the first King mentioned by him is Gonanda I, whose initial year of reign he
places in 653 Kali-era, the traditional date of the coronation of King Yudhistira,
the eldest brother of the Pandvas. Gonanda was killed in a battle along with his son
in India, and at the time of the commencement of the Mahabharat war, Gonanda II
was ruling Kashmir. After his death, the great historion informs that the record of
35 kings who ruled the valley could not be traced by him, because of the destruction
of the record. However a modern scholar Peer Zada Hassan has given a brief
record of these Kings from a Persian work composed during the time of Sultan
Zainul-Abdeen ( 1420-70). The author of this work Mulla Ahmad had been able
to obtain the names of these kings from an earlier Sanskrit work "Ratnakar". The
great Mauryan emperor Ashoka is recorded to have ruled Kashmir, and Kalhan
rightly mentions that the king was a follower of Buddhism. Ashoka founded the
old city of Srinagar called now as "Pandrethan ", (Puranadhisthan) and also build
many vihars and temples and repaired the old shrine. It was Majjhantika, a celebrated
Buddhist missionary who was deputed to Kashmir and Urvasa to preach the faith
of Buddha in those territories. Hien-Tsang mentions the arrival of 500 monks to
Kashmir, and Ashoka making a gift of the valley to Sangha. Many Buddhist
scholars, missionaries, and intellectuals permanently settled in the valley. After
the death of Ashoka, his son Jaluka ascended the throne of Kashmir, and the latter
was succeeded by his son King Damodar II. Jaluka was a great king who cleared
the valley of oppressing 'Malechas', (foreign unclean tribes). King Damodar lives
in our memory even at present, for the Srinagar Airport is located at Damodar
Karewa, where the king is supposed to have lived in a big palace and, where
again, he was transformed into a snake by the curse of a Brahmin. The scholars
also, accept the theory that the valley for over two hundred years was ruled by
Indo-Greek Kings before the start of "Turushka" (Kushan) rule in the state.
Cunningham records a large find of silver coins of Azes (and Azilies) (coins of
Indo-Scythians) on the banks of Vitasta (river Jhelum) in the hills between
Varahmulla and Jhelum. The contact with the Greeks is responsible for the beautiful
architectural, and sculptural style of old Kashmir temples, and the coinage of later
Kashmir Kings has also been influenced by this contact. Kalhan's account of
Turushka Kings, indicates without any doubt the Kushan occupation of the Valley.
The three kings mentioned by him are Huska, Juska, and Kanishka, each of them
is credited with the foundation of a town, christened after their respective names:
Hushkapura, Jushkapura and Kanishkapura. The Kushan Kings also built many
temples and Vihars. According to many scholars, Kanishka held the third great
council of the Buddhist church at "Kundalvan", (Harwan, near Shalimar garden)
Hien Tsang has given the proceedings of this council. Nearly 500 Buddhist and
Hindu scholars attended this conference, and a learned Kashmir Brahmin Vasumitra
presided over its session. Some of the great Buddhist scholars, who took active
part in this council were Ashvagosha, Nagarjuna, Vasubandu Sugamitra and
Jinamitra. Hien-Tsang praises the intellectual calibre of the Kashmir scholars, and
considered them as incomparable. The entire proceedings of the conference were
inscribed on copper plates in Sanskrit, enclosed in stone boxes, deposited in a
Vihar. Like famous Gilgit manuscripts, it is possible that these copper plates may
history of the valley.
be unearthed in near future, and we would learn much about the rich cultural
After Kanishka, local weak rulers continued to govern the state, till we hear from
Kalhan, the arrival of Mahir-Gul, the notorious Hun invader of our country. Kalhan
correctly represents him as a savage cruel king, whose approach became known
by the sight of thousands of vultures, crows and the like in the sky, eager to feed
on those being massacred by his encircling army. While crossing Pir Panchal pass,
the tyrant rolled down one hundred elephants from a mountain pass. The shrieks
and the yells of the dying elephants greatly delighted this fiend. Till the advent of
Karkota dynasty (beginning of 8th Century) the Gonanda dynasty gave Kashmir
only two notable rulers viz. Meghvahan and Pravansein. The former was a pious
and a strong ruler with Buddhist leanings. He stopped killing of animals and birds
throughout his Kingdom. In fact, he undertook conquest of many countries solely
for the purpose of stopping animal slaughter. His chief queen Amrit Prabha built
'Amrit Bhawan' Vihar for foreign pilgrims and students who came to Kashmir in
large numbers for learning. The next great King was Praversein II in whose time
people enjoyed perfect peace and prosperity. He was a great conqueror who
extended the boundaries of the state in all directions. He has made his name immortal
by founding the city of Praverseinpura (modern city of Srinagar), the summer
capital of the state at present. Praversein ruled ably for 60 years.
It was during the time of first king of Karkota dynasty, Durlabvardhan that the
great Chinese pilgrim, Hien Tsang visited Kashmir and entered the valley via
Varahmulla where he found a huge stone gate. The entry of all outsiders, except
the Hindus, was banned in the state then. Hien-Tsang was given a right royal
reception by the people including the king. He stayed in Kashmir for nearly two
years, studied Sanskrit and Hindu scriptures at the feet of learned men here.
It is the Karkota dynasty that has given Kashmir the greatest ruler Lalitaditya
Muktapid (724 761 A. D.). He is undoubtedly the Samudra Gupta of Kashmir,
He was filled with an unquenchable thirst of world conquest. He invaded and
conquered many countries in Asia and India. The Punjab, Kanuj, Tibet, Ladhak,
Badakshan, Iran, Bihar, Gauda (Bengal) Kalinga (Orissa), South India, Gujarat,
Malwa, Marwar and Sindh were all conquered by him. It was he, who finally
broke the power of Arabs in Sindh. All these unbroken victories created a feeling
of pride among the people here and his victories came to be celebrated in a big
way. Kalhan who wrote his famous chronicle (Rajatarangini) nearly four hundred
years after the death of Lalitaditya, records that even in his time the victories of the
great victor were being celebrated throughout the valley. Alberuni, who
accompanied Mahmud Gaznavi in his Indian Campaigns, specifically mentions in
his book (Tahqiq-i-Hind) that Kashmiris observed second of Chaitra, as the day
of victory. Lalitaditya was equally a great builder and he built his capital near the
sacred shrine of Khir-Bhawani, and gave it the name of Parihaspur (city of pleasure).
Throughout the valley, he built very fine and massive temples, out of which the
world famous sun temple (Martand) built on Mattan Karewa, reminds us about the
granduer and splendour of the times when their builder ruled the state. The extensive
ruins of his capital city Parihaspur, speak of his activities in the field of art and
architecture. After his death, it is mostly the weak rulers except his grand son
Jayatida, who ruled the valley. Both Lalitaditya, and Jayatida were great patrons
of learning and extended their partonage to Bhavabhuti, Vakpatrija, Udhata Bhata,
Damodhar Gupta, Manoratha, Sankhdanta and Samadhimat etc. The history of
Karkota dynasty after Jayatida is a sad story of decline. All the conquered territories
regained their independence, and the sovereignty of the ruler of Kashmir came to
be confined to Vitasta basin. The economic ruin was hastened by the extravagant
habits of both the rulers and the ministers. In the words of Kalhan: "the ministers
and the grandees carried-off the revenues of the country, feasted in mutal jealousy
on the masterless kingdom, like wolves on a dead buffalo in a desert. "Inspite of
all this the Karkota rule on the whole has been considered as the glorious and
remarkable periods of ancient Kashmir. Laments Dr. P. C. Ray that " never before
the Karkota period, had Kashmir performed such a feat, nor was she able to repeat
it in future."It was round about in 855-56 A. D. that Karkota rule ended, and a new Utpal
Dynasty assumed power in Kashmir. The most important ruler of this dynasty was
and economic disorder. His reign witnessed a period of peace and consolidation
Maharaja Avanti-verman. It was he, who recovered Kashmir from utter political
and prosperity. It was during this time, that the valley rose to great heights in the
realm of philosophy, artand letters. There was an outburst of literary activity on a
grand scale, and eminent men Kallata Bhat sura, Ratnakar, Anandavardhana,
Muktakana, Siva Swamin, Rudrata and Mukula. Kalhan's mention of numerous
temples built and towns founded by the King, and his ministers throws plenty of
light on the prosperous condition of the period. The most important foundation of
the King was his capital city of Avantipur, which he embellished with two temples:
even then, they stand as the most imposing monuments of ancient Kashmir.
one dedicated to Shiva, and other to Vishnu. Both of them are in ruins now, but
The reign of this King would not be complete without the mention of 'Suya' one
of the greatest engineer Kashmir produced in ancient times. For centuries the people
of the valley had been suffering from the recurring curse of famines and floods.
Saya correctly assessed that these frequent calamities occured due to heavy rains
and excessive water of Vitasta river which could not easily get out with swiftness,
through a gorge near Varahmulla, as the compressed passage there bad got blocked
with silt and huge boulders. The people removed both the silt and stones when the
great engineer threw plenty of gold and silver coins into the river at many places.
Thousands of starving people immediately jumped into the flooded Vitasta and in
order to find the coins, cleared the bed of the rocks and boulders which had choked
up the passage. Suya, then raised stone embankments, and adopted other protective
measures. Many canals were dug-out to increase the irrigational facilities. The
result of all these measures was, that a great increase of land became available for
cultivation. The production of paddy increased and the price of one Khirwar (nearly
two mounds) came down to 36 Dinars from 200 Dinars. Suya's memory is still
preserved to this day, by the town Sayapur (Sopore) founded by him at the point
where river Vitasta, since his regulation leaves the basin of Mahapadomsar (Wouler
lake). Avantivarman died in a temple on the Dal Lake, when a fatal disease caught
him, and in the words of Kalhan," listening to the end to the song of the Lord
Bhagvatgeeta) and thinking of the residence of Vishnu (Vaikuntha) he cast off his
earthly life with a cheerful mind." (June 883) Avantivarman was succeeded by
his son Shankarvarman, but then the decline of Utpal dynasty set in. In the time of
King Yasakara (939-48) a 'Math' (hospice) was built for the students of India,
who came to Kashmir for study and meditation. It clearly reveals intimate cultural
contact between the valley, and plains of India in the 10th century. In 950,
Khemgupta ascended the throne of Kashmir, a man of mediocre ability who married
princess Didda, daughter of the ruler of Lohara (Poonch) and grand daughter of
the Shahi king of Kabul. After the eclipse of Utpala dynasty, Lohara dynasty ruled
Kashmir till the end of the Hindu rule in Kashmir (1339). Queen Didda was the
defacto ruler of the state, as she was very dominating and exercised immense
influence over her husband. She built many temples and monasteries and one of
these was reserved for people of Madyadesha and Lata (U. P., Bihar and Central
India). In 980 A.D. Didda ascended the throne after the death of her husband.
Before her, two other queens had ruled Kashmir namely Yashovati and Sugandha.
Didda was a very unscrupulous, and wilful lady and led a very immoral life. But
inspite of these drawbacks, she was an able ruler, who firmly ruled the valley. She
died in 1003 A. D. and left the throne of Kashmir to her family in undisputed
succession. As her children had died young, she transmitted the crown to
Sangramraj, son of her brother Udairaj, the ruler of Lohara (Poonch).
It was during her time, that Mahmud Gaznavi twice tried to capture the valley but
the fort at Lohara, remarkable for its height and strength proved impregnable. The
Sultan was obliged to abandon the conquest.
From 1089 to 1101 A. D., King Harsha ruled Kashmir. Versed in many languages,
a good poet, lover of music and art, he started his rule in a remarkable way, and
became famous in northern India. His court was a centre of luxury and splendour.
He introduced new fashions in dress and ornaments. His ministers were gorgeously
dressed, wore earrings and head dresses, previously reserved for the members of
ruling families only. But strangely enough, Harsha's career became a record of
follies and misdeeds. The people also suffered from famine, and plague as well,
and a considerable section of people became victims of these calamities. A confusion
followed these misfortunes, leading to a general rising of the people under two
royal princes Uccalia and Succalla. Harsha along with his son Bhoja were murdered.
and the Kashmir throne passed into the hands of two princes respectively. Both the
princes met the fate of Harsha and when our great historian Kalhan completed his
'Rajatarangini' in 1149 - 50 King Jaisimha, the last great ruler of the Hindu times
was ruling the state.
Jaisimha's (1128-55) early days were critical, because of the preceeding civil wars
and political unrest. Still the new ruler was able to maintain his firm rule for 27
years in comparative safety. The King repaired and restored many temples and
shrines, and numerous other pious foundations were also made during his reign.
The people after a long time heaved a sigh of relief. From 1155-1339, the Kashmir
rulers remained busy only in intrigues, debauchery, and mutual quarrels. These
incessant feuds, civil wars, risings and upheavals greatly weakened Hindu
domination of Kashmir. The valley soon fell a prey to Mongol and Turkish raiders,
free booters and foreign adventurers. Quite naturally, the boundaries of the Kingdom
got shrunk, and were reduced to the proper valley only. The Kabul valley Proutonsa
(Poonch), Pajapuri (Rajauri) Kangra, Jammu, Kisthwar and Ladhak, one after the
other threw-off their allegiance to the rulers of Kashmir.
In the beginning of 14th century a ferocious Mongol, Dulucha invaded the valley
through its northern side Zojila Pass, with an army of 60,000 men. Like Taimur in
the Punjab and Delhi, Dulucha carried sword and fire, destroyed towns and villages
and slaughtered thousands. His savage attack practically ended the Hindu rule in
Kashmir. A weak and worthless man Raja Sahadev was the ruler then. It was
during his reign that three adventurers, Shah Mir from Swat (Tribal) territory on
the borders of Afganistan, Rinchin from Ladhak, and Lankar Chak from Dard
territory near Gilgit came to Kashmir, and played a notable role in subsequentive
political history of the valley. All the three men were granted Jagirs by the King
Rinchin for 3 years became the ruler of Kashmir, Shah Mir was the first rular of
Shah Miri-dynasty, and the decendants of Lankar Chak established Chak rule in
the Kashmir.
The last Hindu ruler of Kashmir was Udyan Dev. It was his chief Queen Kota
Rani, who practically governed the state. She was a very brave lady, shrewd and
an able ruler. Though she tried her best to save her Kingdom, odds were too heavy
for her. The valley was again invaded by a Mongal and Turk invader Achalla, but
the Queen defeated him, and drove away all the foreign troops. In the confusion
Rinchin, the Ladhaki prince, whom the Hindu religious leaders of the time refused
to admit into their fold, organised an internal rising and seized the throne. Before
his death, he embraced Islam. Finally another rising was led by Shah Mir, who
defeated the queen at Jayapur (modern Sumbal).
MUSLIM PERIOD
After the death of Queen Kota, Shah Mir ascended the throne under the name of
Sultan Shamas-ud-din, and his dynasty ruled the state for 222 years. This period is
one of the most important in the annals of Kashmir, in as much as Islam was firmly
established here. The Shah-Miri dynasty has given us only two rulers, who are
worthy of mention. One is Sultan Shihabud-din, and the second is the great Sultan
Zain-ul-Abdin. The former ascended the throne in 1354, and continued to rule till
1373. He was full of energy, and vigour and he was able to establish his sway over
the neighbouring countries. His army mainly consisted of Damras, Lavans and the
hill tribes of Poonch, Rajapuri and Kishtwar. The important commanders who
served under him were both Hindus and Muslims, such as Chandra-Damra, Laula
Damara, Shura, Syed Hassan and Abdul Raina. His two important Hindu ministers
were Kota Bhat and Udyashri. At the begining of his reign, he led an army to
Sindh and defeated its ruler. While returning he defeated Afgans near Peshawar
and then he conquered Kabul, Gazni, Qandhar, Pakhali, Swat and Multan. He
invaded Badakshan, and then marched towards Dardistan and Gilgit, which he
easily conquered. Then he marched towards Bulochistan and Ladhak. The ruler of
Kashgar (central Asia) came with a huge army and Shah-u-din whose army was
numerically inferior, inflicted a crushing defeat and the Kashgar army was almost
wiped out. This led to the annexation of Laddhak and Bultistan, which were claimed
by the Kashgar ruler. It is also said that the ruler or Kashmir marched towards
Delhi, and on the way conquered Kangra, and then the army of Ferozashah Tughlaq
opposed him on the banks of Sutluj. Since the battle between the rulets of the
Delhi and Kashmir was indecisive, peace was concluded and it was agreed that all
the territory from Sirhind to Kashmir was to belong to the Kashmir ruler. Shah-ud-
din was not only a great conqueror but also an able administrator, and he governed
subjects generously. his kingdom with firmness and justice. He was tolerant ruler and
treated his Hindu It is reported that owing to prolonged campaigns he needed money,
and his ministers asked him to loot the temples, but he stoutly opposed the proposal,
and to quote Jonaraj, he is reported to have said in anger: "Past generation have set up images
to obtain fame, and earn merit, and you propose to demolish them. Some have
obtained renown by setting up images of gods, others by worshipping them, some
by maintaining them, and you propose demolishing them. How great is the enormity
of such a deed". The king founded a new town which he called Shihab-ud-din-
pora, known now as Shadipur. He is also said to have erected many mosques and
monasteries. Shihab-ud-din can rightly be called the Lalitaditya of medieval
Kashmir. During his time Kashmir armies marched to distant lands, and our
victorious banners were unfurled on many forts of foreign countries. Thus this
great ruler raised Kashmir to great eminence, and power.
The next ruler was Sultan Qutab-ud-din, and in whose time the only important
event worth mentioning is the arrival of said Ali Hamdani, who was the most
remarkable personality of the then muslim world. At the time of his third visit he
got with himself 700 Syeds from Hamdan, who were being out to torture by Timur,
ruler of Persia. These syeds established their centres of missonery activities in
different parts of the valley. In 1389, Qutab-ud-din died, and he was succeeded by
his eldest son Sultan-Sikandar. Shahi-Khan or Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, ascended
the throne in 1420 A. D. and ruled upto 1470 A. D. nearly for half a century. His
accession to the throne, proved to be the return of a bright and warm day after a
cold and a chilly night.
Zain-ul Abidin organized a huge army, and with its help he reconquered the Punjab,
Western Tibet, Ladhak and Balti region, Kulu and Ohind (Hazara ). The Sultan
also maintained cordial and friendly relations with rulers of other countries. The
Sheriff of Macca and the Kings of Jilan and Egypt sent him presents. The Maharaja
of Gwalior, hearing that the Sultan was interested in Music, sent him valuable
works on Indian music. There was also an exchange of embassies and gifts between
the great Sultan and the rulers of Sindh, Bengal, Tibet, Gujrat, Malwa and Delhi.
The Sultan improved the tone of administration which had rudely been shaken. He
appointed talented persons in high administrative posts, irrespective of caste or
creed. The Sultan had a high sense of justice and no one who committed a crime
was spared, however close he was to throne. Many grandees who were favourites
of the king, were severly punished when found guilty. The king took keen interest
in agriculture and like Lalitaditya and Avantivarman, many canals were dug out in
all parts of the Kingdom. Jonraj and Shriva have given details of these canals in
their valuable books. Owing to these irrigation works, the draining of marshes and
reclamation of large areas for cultivation, Kashmir became self-sufficient in food,
and rice was cheap.
One of the most outstanding features of his administration was the just and liberal
treatment of the Hindus, who were not only allowed complete freedom of worship,
but the Sultan recalled all those who had fled to India in the time of his father. He
allowed those Hindus who had forcibly been converted, to return to their former
religion. The Sultan banned cow slaughter and permitted the repair and rebuilding
of the temples at government expenses. He granted lands to learned Brahmins,
endowed temples and for Hindu pilgrims visiting holy places in the valley he
opened a royal kitchen at Rainawari known even now as Jogi Lanker. Jiziya was
almost abolished and the Sultan participated in Hindu festivals and entertained
Brahmins and Sadhus on auspicious days. Some of his important Hindu ministers
were the famous physician Shri Bhat, Tilakacharya, Simha Bhat, Ruppa Bhat,
Karupar Bhat and Shrivara. At the same time Sultan was a great patron of men of
letters such as Syed Mohammud Rumi, Syed Ahmad Rumi, Quazi Syed Ali Shirazi,
Qazi Jamal and Maulana Kabir to mention only a few. The Sultan had also
established a translation department where important works were translated from
Sanskrit into Persian and Arabic. The Sultan opened schools and hostels for the
students. It is for encouragement of arts and crafts that Kashmir will be permanently
indebted to the Sultan. In the Hindu times, the valley was equally famous for its
arts and crafts but these had greatly suffered in the chaos which lasted for over two
hundred years. The Sultan invited competant teachers from countries to Kashmir,
so that they could train people here.
Among many industries introduced by him, we can mention carpet, paper machine,
paper making, silk rearing, shawls, manufacture of gun powder etc. Kashmir became
so famous for beautiful designs on silks and shawls that our state acquired an
unrivalled fame in Asia. Even after a century when Babar's cousin Mirza Haider
Daulghat invaded Kashmir, he wrote in Tarikhi-Reshidi: "In Kashmir one meets
with all these arts and crafts which are in most cities uncommon, such as stone
polishing, stone cutting, bottle making window cutting, gold beating etc. In the
whole Maver-ul-Nahir (Khorasan ) except in Samarkand, and Bokhara, these are
nowhere to be met with, while in Kashmir they are in abundance. This is all due to
Zain-ul-Abidin." The Sultan was a great builder. He founded the new city called
Nowshedar (a part of the city now.) He adorned it with splendid houses for his
officers, courtiers and learned men. He built a palace of 12 storeys in it, each
containing 50 rooms, halls and corridors. It was surmounted by a golden dome,
and its spacious halls were lined with glass. Besides Nowshader, the Sultan founded
the town of Zainapur, Zainakut and Zainagir. Similarly he built the first wooden
bridge at Srinagar known even now as Zainakadal. In 1470 A. D. the Sultan died
and for a long time his death was mourned by the people. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin's
death sounded the death knell of Shah-Miri dynasty. It met the same fate that the
Lohara dynasty had met after the death of Jaisimha in 1156. The only important
event that took place before the establishment of Chak dynasty was the invasion of
Mirza Haider Dughlat who attacked Kashmir from Zogila pass in 1533. Soon he
was able to establish his ascendancy in the valley. The Moghul, like Dulchu earlier.
killed, looted and plundered the people, and made women and children their slaves.
The Sultan of Kashmir, Nazuk Shah, became almost a puppet in his hands. Moghuls
were appointed on high posts everywhere, and the Jagirs of Kashmir Noblemen
were confiscated. For more than a decade Mirza was the virtual ruler of the valley
and he gave peace and orderly Government to the country. He encouraged Kashmir
Art and Crafts, and trade and commerce once again thrived in the valley. The last
Shahmiri ruler, Sultan Habib Shah, a weakling was deposed by his commander,
and nobles raised on throne Gazi Chak, a prominent military General of the time.
He was the direct descendant of Lankar Chak who had come to Kashmir towards
the close of Hindu rule. The Chak rule began in Kashmir in 1561 and lasted till
1587, when Akbar, the great Moghul Emperor conquered Kashmir.
MOGHUL PERIOD
The Moghuls remained in power here, from 1587 to 1752, and in this period
undoubtedly the people enjoyed peace and orderly Govt. There were some rapacious
officers, but on the complaint of the people the Moghul rulers immediately removed
them. It was in 1579 that illuminated Moghul emperor Akbar visited Kashmir.
About eighty thousand Kashmiris were entertained by Akbar at Id-Gah. During
his reign Raja Todar Mal, the great Finance and Revenue Minister, made revenue
settlement of the valley, which in its broad features forms the basis of the present
revenue settlement in the valley. Akbar built a new town, near Hariparbat and
called it Nagar-Magar and built the massive wall around the hill. The great emperor
visited the valley three times, and with him, came a large number of Moghul
grandees, noblemen and army generals. The fame of the valley spread throughout
the country and a very large number of people started to visit the valley. But actually
it was in the time of Jahangir that the beauty of the state attracted thousands of
visitors to the happy valley. The great emperor visited the State thirteen times. The
Moghul rulers never came alone, but were always accompanied by hundreds of
Nobles, Amirs and Umras, Princes and Army Generals. Jahangir came virtually,
under the spell of the scenic beauty of the place, and wherever he found a hill
coming down gently to a spring or a grove of majestic Chinar trees or a beautiful
lake, he utilised the place for planting a pleasure garden. Shalimar and Nishat
gardens on the banks of Dal Lake, would keep Jahangir's love for natural beauty
ever fresh in our memory. He laid gardens at Achable and Verinag. Perhaps no
other ruler has ever paid so much tribute to the beauty of Kashmir as Jahangir did.
Shah Jahan also visited the happy valley a number of times and he too was
accompanied by a large number of nobles. Owing to the long peaceful rule of the
three Moghul Kings, hundreds of people now began to come to Kashmir to find
mental peace, to regain their health or attain spiritual salvation. Shah Jahan laid
the garden of Chashmashai and also built a portion of Shalimar. The Moghul
Governor Ali Marden Khan also laid out a number of gardens. Aurangzeb visited
Kashmir only once in 1665. An interesting account of the emperor's journey to the
valley has been given by a French traveller Francis Bernier who accompanied the
Emperor. The traveller gives a favourable impression of the people in his book.
"The Kashmiris are celebrated for wit. In poetry and sciences they are not inferior
to Persians. They are also active and industrious. The workmanship, and beauty of
their Palkies, bed steads, inkstand, axes, spoons and various other things are quite
remarkable, and articles of their manufacture are in use in every part of India.
They perfectly understand the art of varnishing, and are eminently skilful in closely
imitating the beautiful veins of a certain wood, by inlaying with gold threads so
delicately wrought, that never saw anything more elegant or perfect. But what
may be considered peculiar to Kashmir and the staple commodity, that which
particularly promotes the trade of the country, and fills it with wealth, is the
to her children."
prodigious quantity of shawls which they manufacture, and which gives occupation
country. In distant parts of the empire commenced an era of lawlessness, anarchy
Aurangezeb's reign was a signal for revolts and rebellions in several parts of the
and disorder. Many states became independent under their subedhars who founded
new independent states. A reign of disorder also started in Kashmir. The Moghul
Governors began to loot and plunder the people, and at the same time ruthlessly
started a policy of religious bigotry and fanaticism. There was absolute chaos in
northern India after the invasion of Nadir Shah of Persia. The people of Kashmir
could no longer tolerate the misrule of Moghul satraps, and accordingly when
Ahmad Shah Abdali of Kabul was at Lahore in 1752, two Kashmir nobleman Mir
Muquim Kant and Khwaj'a Zahir Didmari, waited upon him at Lahore, and
disgracefully requested him to bring Kashmir under his control.
AFGAN RULE : 1752-1819
Ahmad Shah, a free hooter of Nadir Shah gladly accepted this offer and immediately
despatched a strong and a powerful Afgan army under the command of Abdullah
Khan Ishik Aqasi, to occupy the valley. The Moghul satrap offered a strong
resistance, but was defeated and the Afgan Governor planted the Afgan flag on the
ramparts of Akbar's town at Nogar. The rule of Moghuls in Kasmir came to an end
although it continued to exist in northern India, nominally upto 1857. Kashmir
remained a dependency of Kabul rulers till 1819, roughly a period of 67 years.
The Pathan rule is the darkest period in the history of our state. The rulers of Kabul
were great despots, and they ruled all the parts of their kingdom ruthlessly and
with an iron hand. The corner stone of their policy was terror. As many as twenty
eight Durrani Subedars governed Kashmir during these sixty seven years. The
Kashmir nobleman had expected that Abdali would give them a good and a stable
government, but the very first Afgan governor Abdullah Khan Aquasi, immediately
after assuming powers started a reign of terror. People began to be looted and
killed indiscriminately, and even the petty Afgan soliders began to amass wealth
by the foulest possible means. Most of the well to do people of the valley were
summoned by the Governor to his palace, and ordered to surrender all their wealth
on pain of death. Their houses were completey sacked, and many people were put
to sword. There was complete gloom and despair on every side. All the prosperity
of the valley was gone, and the people could not even move on the streets, for fear
of being robbed of even their scanty clothing. Each and everyday for a Kashmiri
was a day of struggle and uncertainty. As ill luck would have it, only weak and
worthless Amirs governed Kabul, after the death of Abdali. These Amirs would
either be quickly deposed or assassinated. Naturally accession of every new Amir
would mean appointment of a new Subedar in Kashmir. Hence every Governor
expected his recall or dismissal at any time. This unertainty made these rapacious
governors ruthless, and they squeezed every penny from the people mercilessly.
It is true, that all sections of people suffered here during their time, but the chief
vicitims of these fiends were the Hindus, Shias and Bombas of Jhelum valley.
It is strange that during this dark period a Hindu also became a Governor here. His
name was Raja Sukh Jeevan Mal. It was only in his time that Kashmir heaved a
sigh of relief. He was afterwards defeated and killed by Ahmad Shah. The Pathan
rulers are now only rememberd for their brutality and cruelity, and it is said of
them that they thought no more of cutting off heads than plucking a flower.
SIKH RULE: 1819-1846
At last the reign of terror broke the patience of the peace loving people, and a
deputation of Kashmiris led by Pandit Birbal Dhar, and his son Pandit Rajakak
Dhar, left for Lahore and fervently requested Maharaja Ranjit Singh to conquer
Kashmir. Three prominent Muslims helped Pandit Birbal Dhar in his escape from
the valley. They were Abdul Qadoos Gojwari, Mallick Zulfiqar and Malik Kamgar.
In 1819, 30,000 soliders of Maharaja Ranjit Singh attacked Kashmir, defeated the
Pathans, and the state became a part of Ranjit Singh's empire. On receipt of the
news ,Maharaja Ranjit Singh bestowed honours in Dhar family and Lahore was
illuminated for three days, Sikh rule lasted for only 27 years and during this period
10 Governors administersd the country one after another, out of whom the last two
were Muslims. In the beginning Sikh rule also proved to be oppressive." It must
have been an intense relief ", writes Lawrence, " to all classes in Kashmir to see
the downfall of the evil rule of Pathan, and to none was the relief greater than to
the peasants who had been cruely fleeced by the rapacious sardars of Kabul. I do
not mean to suggest that the Sikh rule was benign or good, but it was at any rate
better that that of the Pathans. "The Sikh rule over Kashmir lasted only for a a brief
span of time, during which the rulers at Lahore were far too pre-occupied at home
to pay any attention to the affairs of this outlying province of theirs. The misery of
the people increased due to natural calamities as well, such as premature snow
falls, which would destroy a ripe rice crop leading to famines. These famines were
followed by diseases like cholera and plague, resulting in a heavy loss of life.
Thousands of people migrated to India during these hard days, and no wonder the
population of the valley came down to two lakhs from 8 lakhs.
Mr. Ranel Tayler who visited Kashmir in 1846 writes about Kashmir, "The town
presents a very miserable apperance. The houses made of wood are tumbling in
every direction. The streets are filthy for want of drainage, none of the bazars
looked wellfilled and prospseous and altogether my ride made me very unhappy".
Moorcraft who visited the valley in 1835 writes, "Everywhere the people were in
most abject condition, not one sixteenth of the cultivable land is under cultivation,
and the inhabitants are starving. They were in a condition of extreme weakness.
Villages were half deserted and those who lived there were the semblance of extreme
sickness. Villages were filthy and swarming with beggars. The rural folk on the
whole were half naked and miserably emaciated and presented a ghastly picture of
poverty and starvation". Such was the general condition of the state when Maharaja
Ranjit Singh died in 1830. His death was a signal for the mutiny of Sikh Army
which become uncontrollable, and plunge entire Punjab into confusion and chaos.
DOGRA PERIOD: 1846-1957
The two Anglo-Sikh wars led to the final extinction of Sikh soverignty in the
Punjab and by virtue of the treaties of Lahore and Amritsar the British who had by
now become undisputed masters of India, transferred and made over in perpetuity,
the independent position to the Maharaja Gulab Singh and heirs male of his body,
all the hilly and mountaneous country situated to the east of Indus, and west of
British government the sum of 75 lakhs of rupees. Maharaja Gulab Singh entered
Ravi river. In consideration of this transfer Maharaja Gulab Singh paid to the
Srinagar on 9th November 1848 at 8 in the morning. The Dogra royal line traces
its descent from the ancient Kshatriyas mentioned frequently in Mahabharata. The
Dogra ruler claimed that they belong to the Surya Vanshi (sun born) race. Maharaja
Gulab Singh was a man of great vigour, foresight and determination. He repressed
opposition and crime with an iron hand and he was universaly feared and respected.
He crushed gangs of organized plunderers, and murderers in the valley known as
Galwans, and also broke the power of Bombas and Khokhas the inhabitants of
Jhelum valley region below Varamulla, who brought havoc to every home in the
arson and plunder. Large number of forts were valley by following a policy
built in their territory which were garrisoned with troops. It was because of his
energetic measures that the conditions of the people improved and after many
years some confidence was inspired in the permanece of administration. The people
got a spell of peace and order, after centuries of lawlessness. The greatest service
of the first Dogra ruler is the foundation he laid of the modern Jammu and Kashmir
State. It was Gulab Singh who conquered one by one different places and regions
of the state, Jammu,. Poonch, Ram Nagar, Basoli, Bhahderwah, Kishtwar, Bhimbar,
Rajauri, Sikardu, Kharmang, Kiris, Khaplu, Sheghar, Astor Gilgit, Chitral, Yasin,
Hunza, Nagar, and Punial. In the words of K. M. Panikar an area of more than
eighty thousand sq. miles including part of Tibet, as well as part of Pamier, besides
the genuinely kingdoms of Jammu and Kashmir came into Maharaja Gulab Singh's
possession. This area had never been effectively united under one ruler and much
of it with of course, the exception of the valley of Kashmir had never known any
settled govt. "Writes N. Bamzai: "Mahraja Gulab Singh is the only Indian
ruler to have carved out a state during the 19th century out of the wreckage of the
great kingdom of Sikhs. Moreover he is the only Indian ruler to have extended the
frontiers of India to their natural boundary." Even Dr. Soft who is not very kind in
his comments writes about him: "Gulab Singh was unquestionably a remarkable
figure in the history of Northern India during the first half of the 19th Century. He
exceedingly well."
was a distinguished soldier and diplomat and knew the state craft of his own days
The Maharaja died in 1857 after a rule of 11 years, during which period he laid the
foundation of a sound system of administration. He was succeeded by Maharaja
Ranbir Singh who ruled from 1857 to 1885. It was in his time that the rule of law
commenced in the state. Almost all the laws, civil and criminal, which the British
had introduced in India were with some modifications made applicable to the state.
The various state departments were organised on the pattern of departments as
these existed in British India. A slight attempt was also made to assess the amount
of land revenue at a fixed amount.
In 1885 Maharaja Sir Pratap Singh ascended the throne and he ruled for a period
of 40 years. It is in the time of this Maharaja that the real modernisation of the state
took place and several progressive reforms were carried through. Sir Walter
Lawrence carried the first assessment of land revenue system in the state on scientific
lines. The two mountain roads-Jhelum valley road and Banihal Cart road were
built linking the state with the rest of India. A scheme for drainage of the valley
reclaiming waste-land and preventing floods by digging flood channels was put
into operation. Construction of water reservior at Harwan and establishment of
electric generating plant at Mohra was also undertaken during this period. Two
colleges in the state besides large number of education institutions were also
established by the order of the Maharaja. The administrative machinery was
completely overhauled. There was development in the means of communication
and telegraphs, telephones and post offices were opened in many places. The
isolation of Kashmir from the rest of the country was now a thing of the past, and
large number of people, mostly Europeans began to visit the valley. The fame of
the valley, its climate and beauty spread in all parts of the world and it can truly be
said that an era of tourist traffic started in right earnest in the state. Many efforts
were made by Englishmen to obtain the right of purchasing land here for building
houses. This would have turned Kashmir into a British Colony. The Maharaja
stoutly refused to entertain the proposal, and this actually led to the construction of
House Boats. After the death of Maharaja Pratap Singh his nephew Maharaja Sir
Hari Singh ascended the throne in 1925. He continued to govern the state till 1950.
During this period, large number of Indians and also foreigners came to enjoy the
bracing climate of the valley. Gulmarg before independence almost looked like an
English town during summer. The same was the case with Nagin Lake. Maharaja
Hari Singh modernised the state and carried out a large number of reforms. It was
in his time that the popular elements began to be associated with the Goverment.
The most important thing that had far reaching consequences in the future history
of the state was the birth of political parties and the growth of political consciousness
in the state during this period. But even more important was the liberation of the
country from the British Yoke in 1947, that ended all the traces of foreign
domination, absolutism and autocracy in our country. It was on 26th Jan. 1957
that the Kashmir Constiuent Assembly ended the hereditary rule of the Hindu.
monarchy in the state exactly after one hundred and ten years of its establishment.
by......R.Guptas general knowledge
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