NOTES PREPARED BY
KHURSHEED AHMAD
TEACHER IN SCHOOL
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
JAMMU AND KASHMIR
CLASS 10
HISTORY
CHAPTER 1
THE RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE
TERMINOLOGY
Absolutist: A form of monarchial government that is centralized, militarized and repressive,
Utopian: A vision of society that it is so ideal that is unlikely to actually exist.
Plebiscite: A Direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal
Ideology: System of ideas that reflects a particular social
Suffrage: The right to vote.
Conservatism: A political philosophy that stressed the importance of tradition, institutions and customs, and preferred development to quick change.
Allegory: A representation of an abstract or spiritual meaning through concrete or material forms, figurative treatment of one subject under the guise of another.
Romanticism: A movement in the arts and literature emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity and the primacy of the individual.
Bourgeoisie: Middle class; refers propertied classes, capitalists, industrialists, merchants, and intelligentsia.
Pact: A formal written or oral agreement between two or more countries, individuals or parties
Convention: An agreement between states covering particular matters, especially less formal than a treaty.
Diplomacy: Skill of managing international relations.
Charter: A written statement or a grant of power to an organization or to an institution, defining the function, rights, obligations or privileges.
Revolution: A turning point in life leading to a new social order.
1. Write in brief
(a) Giuseppe Mazzini: (The pioneer of Italian Unity)
All the efforts made for the unification of Italy till 1830 were a total fiasco. Italian patriots had to succumb to defeat against Austria's invincible strength. At such a crucial time, a great person appeared and ignited new awakening among Italians. That glorious person was none but Mazzini.
Mazzini dedicated his life to the creation of a united and republican Italy. Mazzini was both a romantic and a liberal. As a liberal, he fought for republican and constitutional government and held that the national unity would enhance individual liberty. As a romantic, he believed that an awakened Italy would lead to the regeneration of humanity.
Mazzini had a great charisma, determination, courage and eloquence. He was a prolific writer and an idealistic thinker. His idealism attracted the intelligentsia youth and kept alive the spirit of national unity. He founded a new organization Young Italy, consisting of dedicated revolutionaries, which aimed at infusing the spirit of fraternity among Italians. He believed that a successful revolution must come from below - from the people, moved by a profound love for their nation. Mazzini laid down the foundation of Italian unification and inculcated among Italians the thoughts of patriotism, duty and sacrifice.
(b) Count Camillo Benso de Cavour: (The architect of Italian Unity)
The real credit for the unification of Italy goes to Cavour, the prime minister of Piedmont- Sardinia. Cavour, unlike Mazzini, was neither a dreamer nor a speechmaker but a tough- minded practitioner of Realpolitik. He dismissed ideals as illusions. Cavour had no precise blueprint for unifying Italy. He proved himself to be an extraordinary diplomat and marvelous politician of his times. To improve Piedmont's image in foreign affairs, Cavour launched a reform program to strengthen the economy. He reorganized the currency, taxes and the national debt, built railways and steamships, improved agricultural methods and encouraged new business. He also raised a well-equipped army and naval forces. He received cooperation from all sections and made piedmont a solid, prosperous and ideal state.
He synthesized the thoughts of both Mazzini and Garibaldi. A cautious and practical politician, Cavour realized that mass uprising could not succeed against Austrian might. He engineered a careful diplomatic alliance with France, which helped Piedmont-Sardinia to defeat the Austrian forces and to throw- off the Austrian yoke from Northern Italy.
(c) The Greek War of Independence:
The Greek War of independence(1821-1832) also known as the Greek Revolution was a
successful war of independence waged by the Greeks against the Ottoman Empire. Following
the fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, most of the Greece came
under Ottoman Empire. During this time, there were several revolt attempts by Greeks to gain
independence from the Ottoman control. After the long and bloody struggle, and with the aid
of the United Kingdom, France and Russia, independence to Greece was finally achieved
Sand confirmed by the Treaty of Constantinople in July of 1832.
The Greeks were thus the first of the Ottoman Empire's subject peoples to be accepted as
constituted an independent sovereign power. The revolution is celebrated by the modern
Greece as a national day on 25th March every year.
(d) Frankfurt Parliament:
It was first freely elected parliament of all German National Assembly formed by the middleclass professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans belonging to the different German regions. It was convened on 10th May, 1848 in the church of St. Paul, in the city of Frankfurt. After long and controversial debates, the assembly produced so called Frankfurt Constitution which proclaimed a German empire based on the principles of parliamentary democracy. The constitution fulfilled the demands of the liberal and nationalist movements and provided foundation of basic rights. The Parliament also proposed a constitutional monarchy headed by a hereditary emperor (Kaiser). The Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm IV refused to accept the office of emperor when it was offered to him on the grounds that such a constitution was an abridgment of the rights of the princes of the individual German states. However, the major elements of this constitution became models for the Weimer constitution of 1919 and the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany of 1949.
(e) The role of Women in Nationalist struggles:
Women played a very significant role in the nationalist struggles all over the world. They were equally responsible for demanding Constitutionalism with national unification. They led the movements, faced the tortures of police, stood by their male counterparts, spread their ideas of liberal nationalism and also participated in the various revolutionary organizations. Women had formed their political associations and founded their newspapers. But in spite of their active participation in nationalist struggles, they were given little or no political rights till the end of 19th century.
2 Footfall Taken By French revolutionaries to Create Sense Of Collectiveness Among French People
The French revolutionaries took the following steps to create a sense of collective identity
among the French people:
(i)They introduced the ideas of La Patrie (the fatherland) and Le Citoyen (the citizen)
which emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a
constitution.
(ii) A new French flag, the tri color, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
(iii)The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed as the
National Assembly.
(iv) New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name
of nation. A centralized administrative system was put into place which formulated uniform laws for all citizens.
(vi) Internal custom duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and
measures was adopted.
(vii) Regional dialects were discouraged and French was adopted as the common language
of the nation.
3. Who were Marianna and Germany? What was the significance of their Course of action
Marianne was the female allegory of French nation. In France nation was christened as
Marianne, a popular Christian name, which underlined the idea of a people's nation. Statues
of Marianne with the red cap, the tricolor and the cockade were erected in public squares to
remind the public of the national symbol of unity.
Similarly, Germania became the allegory of German nation. In visual representation, she is
shown wearing a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism.
Both Germania and Marianne stood as personification of ideals like liberty and the republic.
They were portrayed in such a way, that it sought to give an abstract idea of the nation in a
concrete form and would instill a sense of nationality in the citizens of these countries.
4:-German Union
The liberal minded middle class of German Confederacy met in the Frankfurt Parliament in 1848 with an objective of establishing Germany as a nation. But they failed miserably and the parliament ended with monarchial, military and aristocratic triumph. Later on, the chief minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck led the movement of unity of the German
confederacy. He organized the military wars and mobilized bureaucracy against the countries which had occupied the German states. He fought three wars for over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France, won them all and completed the process of German unification. In January 1871, the Prussian king, Kaiser William I was proclaimed German
emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.
5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to further improve the administrative system in areas under his control?
Napoleon introduced following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in
the territories ruled by him:
(i) He established Civil Code of 1804 also known as Napoleonic Code which did away
with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law and secured the
right to property.
(ii) He simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal freedom system and freed
peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
(iii) In towns guild restrictions were removed.
(iv) Transport and communication systems were improved.
(v) Peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen were given freedom in their
sphere.
(vi) Weights and measures were standardized and a common currency was introduced,
which facilitated the movement and exchange of goods and capital from one region to another.
6. Explain What is meant by Liberal Revolution of 1848? what were the political, social and economic ideologies that supported support?
The 1848 revolution of the liberals refers to a series of political upheavals throughout
Europe in 1848. It remained the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history.
The revolutions were essentially bourgeois - democratic in nature with the aim of removing the old feudal structures and the creation of independent national states. The revolutionary began in France and immediately spread to most of Europe and parts of Latin America. The revolutions began with much promises, over 50 countries were affected, but all ended in defeat because of no cooperation and coordination among the revolutionaries in different countries. So, within a year the reactionary forces regained control and decisively smashed the revolutions.
The political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals were as,
- Politically, they demanded constitutionalism with national unification, creation of nation state on parliamentary principles, freedom of press and freedom of association,
- Socially, they wanted to get society rid of its class-based partialities and privileges, abolition of bonded labour and serfdom.
- Economically, they demanded right to property, freedom of markets, abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capitals.
7. Select three examples to show the contribution of culture in the development of. Nationalism in Europe
The development of nationalism did not come about only through wars and territorial
aspirations but culture also played its due role. The three examples which show the
contribution of culture to the growth of nationalismi were as under:
(i) The first example of the effect of romanticism and culture in creating the idea of
nationalism was set by a romantic German philosopher, J.G. Herder. He claimed that
it was through folk songs, folk poetry that the true spirit of the nation was popularized.
(ii) The second example regarding the effect of culture in arousing national feeling was
presented by Polish writer Karol Kurpinski. He, through his operas, music, folk
dances aroused the national emotions of the people against the partition of his country i.e. Poland.
(iii)The third example was presented by French painter, Delacroix. Through his paintings,
“The Massacre of Chios” he depicted an incident of 2000 Greeks killed by the Turks in the island of Chios. By dramatizing the massacre, he sought to appeal to the emotions of the spectators for the cause of Greek independence.
8. Choose primarily two countries to push the shackles of culture of development of Nationalism in Europe
Or
Through the focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.
During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as a force which brought about sweeping changes in political and mental world of Europe. Here focus will be on Belgium and Poland.
Belgium: At the Congress of Vienna (1815) Belgium was annexed to Holland in order to create a strong state on the north-eastern border of France. The principle of nationality was thrown to winds. The Belgians suffered untold miseries under the Dutch government and had a number of grievances but the king paid no heed to them. On the other hand, he did many things to arouse their discontent. Thus the relations between the Dutch and the Belgians were very strained and when the news of the successful revolution reached to Brussels, a revolt erupted there. The Dutch forces failed to quell the uprising; the Belgians constituted a separate assembly and declared their independence in October, 1830with Prince Leopold as Their first independent ruler. Later, the conference of European powers - England, France, Russia and Austria recognized the independence of Belgium.
Poland. The congress of Vienna divided Poland among Austria, Russia and Prussia, The ezar
of Russia, Alexander I, curved och an Independent kingdom of Poland and himselfbecame its rulers. There were no cordial relations between the Russian ruler and the polish subjects, Being inspired by the July Revolution of 1830 in France, the poles raised a standard of revolt against the czar government but were crushed with the iron hand. The accession of Alexander II aroused their hopes and they revolted in 1863 again. No European country came to help the poles and they were badly crushed by the Russian army. The poles never revolted again to claim their freedom. Finally Poland became independent in 1918,
9 How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe
The evolution of nationalism in Britain was a different case as compared to the rest of
Europe. In Britain the formation of nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or
revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn process. There was no British nation prior to the
eighteenth century. The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were
ethnic ones - such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish. All of these cthnic groups had their own
cultural and political traditions. But as the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence over the other nations of the island. The English parliament, which had seized power from the monarchy in 1688 at the end of protracted conflict, was the instrument through which a nation-state, with England at its center, came tobe forged.
The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of Great
Britain. The growth of a British identity systematically suppressed the Scotland's distinctive culture and political institutions. Ireland suffered a similar fate. The English took full advantage of internal disturbances and forcibly incorporated Ireland into the United
Kingdom in 1801. A new “British Nation "was forged through the propagation of a dominant English culture. The symbols of the New Britain were actively promoted and the older nations served only as subordinate partners in union.
10:- Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern- day
Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of Ottoman Empire. This was the period of disintegration of Ottoman Empire and the spread of the romantic nationalism in the Balkans. These developments made this region very explosive. All through the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire tried to strengthen itself through modernization and internal reforms but could not achieve much success. Its
European subject nationalities broke away from its control one by one and declared independence. The Balkan people based their claims for independence or political rights on
nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers. Hence the rebellious nationalists in the
Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long lost independence. While the Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict. They were fiercely jealous of each other and each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others. Matters were further complicated because the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry...
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